Characteristics of study participants by categories of coffee consumption
| Characteristics | Daily coffee consumption | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| None | <1 cup | 1–<3 cups | 3–<5 cups | ≥5 cups | |
| (n=1381) | (n=6666) | (n=9849) | (n=6084) | (n=1158) | |
| Age (years) | 41.1 (8.8) | 40.6 (8.0) | 41.4 (7.4) | 42 (6.7) | 42.1 (6.7) |
| Males (%) | 73.8 | 82.2 | 82.6 | 88.5 | 87.9 |
| College graduation or higher (%) | 77.7 | 81.3 | 83.3 | 83.3 | 83.2 |
| Current smoker (%) | 13.8 | 23.6 | 28.7 | 40 | 48.9 |
| HEPA (%) | 9.6 | 7.4 | 8 | 7.1 | 7.2 |
| Obesity (%) | 31.9 | 37.2 | 38.2 | 43.2 | 46.9 |
| Diabetes (%) | 6.4 | 6.2 | 5.8 | 5.8 | 7.2 |
| Hypertension (%) | 19 | 16.4 | 16.6 | 16.6 | 15.5 |
| Hypercholesterolaemia (%) | 21.8 | 24.6 | 25.8 | 27.7 | 29.1 |
| Parental history of CHD (%) | 7.9 | 7.1 | 7.5 | 8.1 | 7.3 |
| SBP (mm Hg) | 115.0 (13.5) | 115.6 (13.2) | 114.9 (13.2) | 114.9 (12.6) | 114.6 (12.4) |
| DBP (mm Hg) | 73.7 (10.3) | 74.0 (10.4) | 73.7 (10.5) | 73.9 (10.1) | 73.5 (9.9) |
| Glucose (mmol/L) | 5.4 (0.81) | 5.5 (0.9) | 5.5 (0.9) | 5.5 (0.9) | 5.5 (0.9) |
| HbA1c (%) | 5.67 (0.45) | 5.69 (0.53) | 5.69 (0.52) | 5.71 (0.55) | 5.72 (0.53) |
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 5.1 (0.9) | 5.2 (0.9) | 5.2 (0.9) | 5.3 (0.9) | 5.4 (0.9) |
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 1.2 (0.8–1.7) | 1.3 (0.9–1.9) | 1.3 (0.9–1.9) | 1.3 (0.9– 1.9) | 1.4 (1.0–2.0) |
| HDL-C (mmol/L) | 1.4 (0.4) | 1.4 (0.3) | 1.4 (0.3) | 1.4 (0.3) | 1.3 (0.3) |
| LDL-C (mmol/L) | 3.2 (0.8) | 3.3 (0.8) | 3.3 (0.8) | 3.4 (0.8) | 3.5 (0.8) |
| hsCRP (mg/L) | 0.5 (0.3–0.9) | 0.5 (0.3–1.0) | 0.5 (0.3–1.0) | 0.5 (0.3–1.1) | 0.5 (0.3–1.1) |
| Daily dietary consumption | |||||
| Total energy (Kcal/day) | 1570.8 (728.4) | 1519.7 (653.7) | 1604.4 (636.7) | 1720.4 (676.1) | 1840.9 (722.6) |
| Vegetables (g/day) | 96.6 (112.9) | 80.2 (76.7) | 86.0 (84.1) | 85.4 (78.5) | 91.1 (94.6) |
| Fruits (g/day) | 220.0 (343.1) | 185.0 (213.4) | 195.6 (205.8) | 197.0 (207.1) | 210.6 (250.1) |
| Red and processed meat (g/day) | 55.6 (52.9) | 60.8 (57.1) | 61.1 (54.5) | 67.5 (59.7) | 74.7 (72.4) |
| Alcohol (g/day) | 3.9 (0.6–16.9) | 6.0 (1.8–19.2) | 7.0 (2.3–20.8) | 7.9 (2.7–22.6) | 8.6 (2.8–24.3) |
| Tea drinker, 0 >cup/day (%)* | 54.0 | 72.1 | 67.2 | 65.3 | 59.4 |
Data are presented as proportions, means (SD), or medians (IQR).
*Data were missing in 1.9% of participants.
CHD, coronary heart disease; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HbA1c, haemoglobin A1c; HDL-C, high density lipoprotein cholesterol; HEPA, health enhancing physical activity; hsCRP, high sensitivity C reactive protein; LDL-C, low density lipoprotein cholesterol; SBP, systolic blood pressure.