Summary of main results
| Outcomes | Risk ratio (95% CI) | No of participants (no of studies) | Certainty of the evidence |
| Beta-blockers versus placebo | |||
| All-cause mortality | 0.99 (0.88 to 1.11) | 23 613 (4 studies) | ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate* |
| Cardiovascular events | 0.88 (0.79 to 0.97) | 23 613 (4 studies) | ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low*† |
| Stroke | 0.80 (0.66 to 0.96) | 23 613 (4 studies) | ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low*† |
| Coronary heart disease | 0.93 (0.81 to 1.07) | 23 613 (4 studies) | ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate* |
| Adverse events | 3.38 (0.82 to 13.95) | 22 729 (3 studies) | ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low‡ |
| Beta-blockers versus diuretics | |||
| All-cause mortality | 1.04 (0.91 to 1.19) | 18 241 (5 studies) | ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate* |
| Cardiovascular events | 1.13 (0.99 to 1.28) | 18 135 (4 studies) | ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate* |
| Stroke | 1.17 (0.65 to 2.09) | 18 135 (4 studies) | ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low*‡ |
| Coronary heart disease | 1.12 (0.82 to 1.54) | 18 135 (4 studies) | ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low*‡ |
| Adverse events | 1.69 (0.95 to 3.00) | 11 566 (3 studies) | ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low*‡ |
| Beta-blockers versus calcium-channel blockers | |||
| All-cause mortality | 1.07 (1.0 to 1.14) | 44 825 (4 studies) | ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate† |
| Cardiovascular events | 1.18 (1.08 to 1.29) | 19 915 (2 studies) | ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate§ |
| Stroke | 1.24 (1.11 to 1.4) | 44 167 (3 studies) | ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate§ |
| Coronary heart disease | 1.05 (0.96 to 1.15) | 44 167 (3 studies) | ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate§ |
| Adverse events | 1.20 (0.71 to 2.04) | 21 591 (2 studies) | ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low‡§ |
| Beta-blockers versus renin–angiotensin system inhibitors | |||
| All-cause mortality | 1.10 (0.98 to 1.24) | 10 828 (3 studies) | ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate§ |
| Cardiovascular events | 1.0 (0.72 to 1.38) | 10 828 (3 studies) | ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low‡§ |
| Stroke | 1.30 (1.11 to 1.53) | 9951 (2 studies) | ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate§ |
| Coronary heart disease | 0.90 (0.76 to 1.06) | 9951 (2 studies) | ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low§¶ |
| Adverse events | 1.41 (1.29 to 1.54) | 9951 (2 studies) | ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate§ |
*The two studies that contribute the most weight to this finding have high risk of bias.
†The risk ratio is too close to 1 and could easily include 1 if more trials are added.
‡Substantial heterogeneity of effect across studies.
§Only two to three studies have reported data on this outcome.
¶Imprecise results with a wide CI.