Gross plaque chemical composition to quantify cholesterol, cholesterol esters, triglycerides and phospholipids and calcium salts

Human; samples from 16 explanted recipient hearts; Raman analysis on sections31

Detection of cholesterol

Human; intact artery samples32

Quantification of relative proportions of multiple lipid classes including cholesterol, cholesterol esters, phospholipids and triglycerides

Human; arterial lysates33

Detection and quantification of elastic laminae, collagen fibres, smooth muscle cells, adventitial adipocytes, foam cells, necrotic core, cholesterol crystals, β-carotene containing crystals and calcium mineralisation using an algorithm designed to interpret Raman data

Human; samples from 16 explanted recipient hearts; Raman analysis on 5μm thick sections34

Relative quantification of cholesterol, collagen and adipocyte content

Human; fragments from 30 cadavers35

Detailed Raman analysis of plaque content including lipids, remodelled media and fibrous cap with a spatial resolution down to 1 µM Observation of distinct protein signatures including haemoporphyrin and elastin

ApoE and LDLr DKO mice; transversal sections28

Measurement of endothelial dysfunction

ApoE and LDLr DKO mice36

Detailed Raman analysis of lesions associated with FTIR to characterise plaque contents including multiple lipid classes, endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, extracellular matrix

Hypercholesteraemic rabbit; fragments29

Quantitative mapping of chemical components

ApoE mice; fragments37

Raman-probe spectroscopy to characterize the plaque composition of arterial walls

Rabbit; in vivo38

Multimodal spectroscopic approach with the ability to detect vulnerable plaques with a sensitivity of 96%, specificity of 72% and a negative predictive value of 97%

Human; endarterectomy plus femoral bypass surgery samples (n=12)39

Characterisation of peculiar spectral signatures related to biochemicals presented in lesion, eg, collagen and elastin, cholesterol and calcium hydroxyapatite

Human; fragments postmortem40

Intravascular Raman spectroscopy, using miniaturised fibre-optic probes to collect Raman scattered light from vessel wall

Lambs and sheep; in vivo41

Real-time in vivo collection of Raman spectra of atherosclerosis using a newly designed optical fibre Raman probe. Demonstration that Raman spectroscopy has capability to identify vulnerable plaque with 79% sensitivity and 85% specificity

Human42