Download PDF
Semin Vasc Med 2002; 02(4): 369-382
DOI: 10.1055/s-2002-36766
Copyright © 2002 by Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA. Tel.: +1(212) 584-4662

Coronary Heart Disease and Body Mass Index: A Systematic Review of the Evidence from Larger Prospective Cohort Studies

Gary Whitlock1 , Sarah Lewington1 , Cliona Ni Mhurchu2
  • 1Clinical Trial Service Unit and Epidemiology Studies Unit, Radcliffe Infirmary, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
  • 2Clinical Trials Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
22 January 2003 (online)

    Permissions and Reprints

ABSTRACT

We systematically reviewed English-language publications arising from prospective cohort studies of the association between coronary heart disease risk and body mass index. Eighty published articles from 46 studies were identified. Two thirds of the studies, including all 14 studies with at least 500 cases ("larger" studies), reported a positive or J-shaped association. Among these 14 larger studies, the average increase in coronary heart disease risk for each 2 kg/m2 higher body mass index was 14%. There was only limited evidence of effect modification by age, sex, ethnicity, or other variables. Evidence from many studies, including randomized controlled trials, implies that the association between coronary heart disease risk and body mass index is partly (or perhaps wholly) mediated by high blood pressure, dyslipidemia, and impaired glucose tolerance.

KEYWORD

Coronary heart disease - body mass index - obesity - cohort study - systematic review

REFERENCES

  • 1 Kopelman P G. Obesity as a medical problem.  Nature . 2000;  404 635-643
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Manson J E, Colditz G A, Stampfer M J. A prospective study of obesity and risk of coronary heart disease in women.  N Engl J Med . 1990;  322 882-889
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Garrison R J, Higgins M W, Kannel W B. Obesity and coronary heart disease.  Curr Opin Lipidol . 1996;  7 199-202
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Eckel R H, Krauss R M. American Heart Association call to action: obesity as a major risk factor for coronary heart disease.  Circulation . 1998;  97 2099-2100
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Keys A. Longevity of man: relative weight and fatness in middle age.  Ann Med . 1989;  21 163-168
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Weigle D S. Human obesity. Exploding the myths.  West J Med . 1990;  153 421-428
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Rose G, Hamilton P S, Keen H. Myocardial ischaemia, risk factors and death from coronary heart disease.  Lancet . 1977;  1 105-109
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Willett W. Nutritional Epidemiology.  2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press 1998: 244-272
    Google Scholar
  • 9 Weinsier R L, Fuchs R J, Kay T D. Body fat: its relationship to coronary heart disease, blood pressure, lipids and other risk factors measured in a large male population.  Am J Med . 1976;  61 815-824
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Terry R B, Page W F, Haskell W L. Waist/hip ratio, body mass index and premature cardiovascular disease mortality in US Army veterans during a twenty-three year follow-up study.  Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord . 1992;  16 417-423
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Beard C M, Orencia A, Kottke T. Body mass index and the initial manifestation of coronary heart disease in women aged 40-59 years.  Int J Epidemiol . 1992;  21 656-664
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Simons L A, Friedlander Y, McCallum J. The Dubbo Study of the Health of the Elderly: correlates of coronary heart disease at study entry.  J Am Geriatr Soc . 1991;  39 584-590
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Engström G, Berglund G, Göransson M. Distribution and determinants of ischaemic heart disease in an urban population. A study from the myocardial infarction register in Malmö, Sweden.  J Intern Med . 2000;  247 588-596
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Yanovski S Z, Bain R P, Williamson D F. Report of a National Institutes of Health-Centers of Disease Control and Prevention Workshop on the feasibility of conducting a randomized clinical trial to estimate the long-term health effects of intentional weight loss in obese persons.  Am J Clin Nutr . 1999;  69 366-372
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Prospective Studies Collaborators. Collaborative overview ('meta-analysis') of prospective observational studies of the associations of usual blood pressure and usual cholesterol levels with common causes of death: protocol for the second cycle of the Prospective Studies Collaboration.  J Cardiovasc Risk . 1999;  6 315-329
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Anonymous. Determinants of cardiovascular disease in the Asia-Pacific region: protocol for a collaborative overview of cohort studies.  CVD Prev . 1999;  2 281-289
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Meisler J G, St Jeor S. Summary and recommendations from the American Health Foundation's Expert Panel on Healthy Weight.  Am J Clin Nutr . 1996;  63(Suppl) 474S-477S
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 World Health Organization. Potential Developments of Reference Data Physical Status: The Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry. Geneva: World Health Organization 1995: 336-339
  • 19 Willett W C, Manson J E, Stampfer M J. Weight, weight change, and coronary heart disease in women: risk within the "normal" weight range.  JAMA . 1995;  273 461-465
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Lindsted K, Tonstad S, Kuzma J W. Body mass index and patterns of mortality among Seventh-Day Adventist men.  Int J Obes . 1991;  15 397-406
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Morris J N, Everitt M G, Pollard R. Vigorous exercise in leisure-time: protection against coronary heart disease.  Lancet . 1980;  2 1207-1210
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Shaper A G, Wannamethee S G, Walker M. Body weight: implications for the prevention of coronary heart disease, stroke and diabetes mellitus in a cohort study of middle-aged men.  BMJ . 1997;  314 1311-1317
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Tate R B, Manfreda J, Cuddy T E. The effect of age on risk factors for ischemic heart disease: the Manitoba Follow-up Study, 1948-1993.  Ann Epidemiol . 1998;  8 415-421
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Rissanen A, Heliövaara M, Knekt P. Risk of disability and mortality due to overweight in a Finnish population.  BMJ . 1990;  301 835-837
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Jarrett R J, Shipley M J, Rose G. Weight and mortality in the Whitehall Study.  BMJ . 1982;  285 535-537
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Cooper R S, Ford E. Comparability of risk factors for coronary heart disease among blacks and whites in the NHANES-I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study.  Ann Epidemiol . 1992;  2 637-645
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Rosengren A, Wedel H, Wilhelmsen L. Body weight and weight gain during adult life in men in relation to coronary heart disease and mortality. A prospective population study.  Eur Heart J . 1999;  20 269-277
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Higgins M, Kannel W, Garrison R. Hazards of obesity-the Framingham experience.  Acta Med Scand . 1988;  723(Suppl) 23-36
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Keys A, Aravanis C, Blackburn H. Coronary heart disease: overweight and obesity as risk factors.  Ann Intern Med . 1972;  77 15-27
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Rexrode K M, Buring J E, Manson J E. Abdominal and total adiposity and risk of coronary heart disease in men.  Int J Obes . 2001;  25 1047-1056
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Jousilahti P, Vartiainen E, Tuomilehto J. Sex, age, cardiovascular risk factors, and coronary heart disease: a prospective follow-up study of 14,786 middle-aged men and women in Finland.  Circulation . 1999;  99 1165-1172
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Rhoads G G, Kagan A. The relation of coronary disease, stroke, and mortality to weight in youth and in middle age.  Lancet . 1983;  1 492-495
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Jousilahti P, Tuomilehto J, Vartiainen E. Body weight, cardiovascular risk factors, and coronary mortality: 15-year follow-up of middle-aged men and women in eastern Finland.  Circulation . 1996;  93 1372-1379
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Galanis D J, Harris T, Sharp D S. Relative weight, weight change, and risk of coronary heart disease in the Honolulu Heart Program.  Am J Epidemiol . 1998;  147 379-386
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Folsom A R, Kushi L H, Anderson K E. Associations of general and abdominal obesity with multiple health outcomes in older women: the Iowa Women's Health Study.  Arch Intern Med . 2000;  160 2117-2128
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Rimm E B, Stampfer M J, Giovannucci E. Body size and fat distribution as predictors of coronary heart disease among middle-aged and older US men.  Am J Epidemiol . 1995;  141 1117-1127
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Goldbourt U, Holtzman E, Cohen-Mandelzweig L. Enhanced risk of coronary heart disease mortality in lean hypertensive men.  Hypertension . 1987;  10 22-28
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Tunstall-Pedoe H, Woodward M, Tavendale R. Comparison of the prediction by 27 different factors of coronary heart disease and death in men and women of the Scottish heart health study: cohort study.  BMJ . 1997;  315 722-729
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Singh P N, Lindsted K D, Fraser G E. Body weight and mortality among adults who never smoked. Am J Epidemiol .  1999;  150 1152-1164
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Janghorbani M, Hedley A J, Jones R B. Gender differential in all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality.  Int J Epidemiol . 1993;  22 1056-1063
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Jensen G, Nyboe J, Appleyard M. Risk factors for acute myocardial infarction in Copenhagen II: smoking, alcohol intake, physical activity, obesity, oral contraception, diabetes, lipids, and blood pressure.  Eur Heart J . 1991;  12 298-308
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Stamler J, Dyer A R, Shekelle R B. Relationship of baseline major risk factors to coronary and all-cause mortality, and to longevity: findings from long-term follow-up of Chicago cohorts.  Cardiology . 1993;  82 191-222
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Shaten B J, Kuller L H, Neaton J D. Association between baseline risk factors, cigarette smoking, and CHD mortality after 10.5 years.  Prev Med . 1991;  20 655-669
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Folsom A R, Stevens J, Schreiner P J. Body mass index, waist/hip ratio, and coronary heart disease incidence in African Americans and whites.  Am J Epidemiol . 1998;  148 1187-1194
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Rosenman R H, Brand R J, Sholtz R I. Multivariate prediction of coronary heart disease during 8.5-year follow-up in the Western Collaborative Group Study.  Am J Cardiol . 1976;  37 903-909
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Seidell J C, Verschuren M, van Leer M E. Overweight, underweight, and mortality: a prospective study of 48,287 men and women.  Arch Intern Med . 1996;  156 958-963
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Qvist J, Johansson S-E, Johansson L M. Multivariate analyses of mortality from coronary heart disease due to biological and behavioural factors.  Scand J Soc Med . 1996;  24 67-76
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Welin L, Eriksson H, Larsson B. Risk factors for coronary heart disease during 25 years of follow-up: the study of men born in 1913.  Cardiology . 1993;  82 223-228
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Ducimetiere P, Richard J L, Cambien F. Coronary heart disease in middle-aged Frenchmen: comparisons between Paris Prospective Study, Seven Countries Study, and Pooling Project.  Lancet . 1980;  2 1346-1349
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Stevens J, Keil J E, Rust P F. Body mass index and body girths as predictors of mortality in black and white men.  Am J Epidemiol . 1992;  135 1137-1146
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Kornitzer M, Dramaix M, Beriot I. Twenty-five-year mortality follow-up in the Belgian Bank Study.  Cardiology . 1993;  82 153-171
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Frankel S, Elwood P, Sweetnam P. Birthweight, body-mass index in middle age, and incident coronary heart disease.  Lancet . 1996;  348 1478-1480
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Seeman T, Mendes de Leon C, Berkman L. Risk factors for coronary heart disease among older men and women: a prospective study of community-dwelling elderly.  Am J Epidemiol . 1993;  138 1037-1049
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Menotti A, Spagnolo A, Scanga M. Multivariate prediction of coronary deaths in a 10-year follow-up of an Italian occupational male cohort.  Acta Cardiol . 1992;  17 311-320
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Dyer A R, Stamler J, Berkson D M. Relationship of relative weight and body mass index to 14-year mortality in the Chicago Peoples Gas Company Study.  J Chron Dis . 1975;  28 109-123
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Imeson J D, Haines A P, Meade T W. Skinfold thickness, body mass index and ischaemic heart disease.  J Epidemiol Community Health . 1989;  43 223-227
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Wingard D L, Suarez L, Barrett-Connor E. The sex differential in mortality from all causes and ischemic heart disease.  Am J Epidemiol . 1983;  117 165-172
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Must A, Jacques P F, Dallai G E. Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents: a follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935.  N Engl J Med . 1992;  327 1350-1355
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Bengtsson C, Bjorkelund C, Lapidus L. Associations of serum lipid concentrations and obesity with mortality in women: 20-year follow-up of participants in prospective population study in Gothenburg, Sweden.  BMJ . 1993;  307 1385-1388
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Shimozato M, Nakayama T, Yokoyama T. A 15.5-year cohort study on risk factors for possible myocardial infarction and sudden death within 24 hours in a rural Japanese community.  J Epidemiol . 1996;  6 15-22
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Barbagallo C M, Cavera G, Sapienza M. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in a rural southern Italy population and relationship with total and cardiovascular mortality: the Ventimiglia di Sicilia project.  Int J Obes . 2001;  25 185-190
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Wannamethee S G, Shaper A G, Whincup P H. Role of risk factors for major coronary heart disease events with increasing length of follow-up.  Heart . 1999;  81 374-379
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Fitzgerald A P, Jarrett R J. Body weight and coronary heart disease mortality: an analysis in relation to age and smoking habit.  Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord . 1992;  16 119-123
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Freedman D S, Williamson D F, Croft J B. Relation of body fat distribution to ischemic heart disease: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I (NHANES I) Epidemiologic Follow-up Study.  Am J Epidemiol . 1995;  142 53-63
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Pekkanen J, Tervahauta M, Nissinen A. Does the predictive value of baseline coronary risk factors change over a 30-year follow-up?.  Cardiology . 1993;  82 181-190
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Donahue R P, Abbott R D, Bloom E. Central obesity and coronary heart disease in men.  Lancet . 1987;  1 821-824
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Phillips A, Shaper A G. Relative weight and major ischaemic heart disease events in hypertensive men.  Lancet . 1989;  1 1005-1008
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Harris T B, Ballard-Barbasch R, Madans J. Overweight, weight loss, and risk of coronary heart disease in older women: the NHANES I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study.  Am J Epidemiol . 1993;  137 1318-1327
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Keys A, Aravanis C, Blackburn H. Probability of middle-aged men developing coronary heart disease in five years.  Circulation . 1972;  45 815-828
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Rabkin S W, Matthewson F AL, Ping-Hwa H. Relation of body weight to development of ischemic heart disease in a cohort of young North American men after a 26-year observation period: the Manitoba Study.  Am J Cardiol . 1977;  39 452-458
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Jousilahti P, Vartiainen E, Tuomilehto J. Role of known risk factors in explaining the difference in the risk of coronary heart disease between eastern and southwestern Finland.  Ann Med . 1998;  30 481-487
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Fraser G E, Strahan M, Sabaté J. Effects of traditional coronary risk factors on rates of incident coronary events in a low-risk population: the Adventist Health Study.  Circulation . 1992;  86 406-413
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Menotti A, Seccareccia F, Lanti M. Time changes in predictability of coronary heart disease in an Italian aging population.  Cardiology . 1993;  82 172-180
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Yao C-H, Slattery M L, Jacobs D R. Anthropometric predictors of coronary heart disease and total mortality: findings from the US Railroad Study.  Am J Epidemiol . 1991;  134 1278-1289
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Harris T B, Launer J L, Madans J. Cohort study of effect of being overweight and change in weight on risk of coronary heart disease in old age.  BMJ . 1997;  314 1791-1794
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Tuomilehto J, Salonen J T, Marti B. Body weight and risk of myocardial infarction and death in the adult population of eastern Finland.  BMJ . 1987;  295 623-627
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Benfante R, Reed D, Frank J. Do coronary heart disease risk factors measured in the elderly have the same predictive roles as in the middle aged: comparisons of relative and attributable risks.  Ann Epidemiol . 1992;  2 273-282
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Shaper A G, Pocock S J, Walker M. Risk factors for ischaemic heart disease: the prospective phase of the British Regional Heart Study.  J Epidemiol Community Health . 1985;  39 197-209
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Rosner B, Spiegelman D, Willett W C. Correction of logistic regression relative risk estimates and confidence intervals for random within-person measurement error.  Am J Epidemiol . 1992;  136 1400-1413
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Buzina R, Mohacek I, Menotti A. Twenty-five year mortality from coronary heart disease and its prediction in two Croatian cohorts of middle-aged men.  Eur J Epidemiol . 1995;  11 259-267
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Benfante R J, Reed D M, MacLean C J. Risk factors in middle age that predict early and late onset of coronary heart disease.  J Clin Epidemiol . 1989;  42 95-104
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Larsson B, Svärdsudd K, Welin L. Abdominal adipose tissue distribution, obesity, and risk of cardiovascular disease and death: 13-year follow-up of participants in the study of men born in 1913.  BMJ . 1984;  288 1401-1404
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Larsson B, Björntorp P, Tibblin G. The health consequences of moderate obesity.  Int J Obes . 1981;  5 97-116
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Keys A, Longstreet Taylor H, Blackburn H. Mortality and coronary heart disease among men studied for 23 years.  Arch Intern Med . 1971;  128 201-214
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Toshima H, Koga Y, Menotti A. The Seven Countries Study in Japan: twenty-five year experience in cardiovascular and all-cause deaths.  Jpn Heart J . 1995;  36 179-189
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Tyroler H A, Knowles M G, Wing S B. Ischemic heart disease risk factors and twenty-year mortality in middle-age Evans County black males.  Am Heart J . 1984;  108 738-746
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Selmer R, Tverdal A. Body mass index and cardiovascular mortality at different levels of blood pressure: a prospective study of Norwegian men and women.  J Epidemiol Community Health . 1995;  49 265-270
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Hames C G, Rose K, Knowles M. Black-white comparisons of 20-year coronary heart disease mortality in the Evans County Heart Study.  Cardiology . 1993;  82 122-136
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Curb J D, Marcus E B. Body fat, coronary heart disease, and stroke in Japanese men.  Am J Clin Nutr . 1991;  53(Suppl) 1612S-1615S
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Sidney S, Friedman G D, Siegelaub A B. Thinness and mortality.  Am J Public Health . 1987;  77 317-322
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Menotti A, Keys A, Aravanis C. Seven Countries Study. First 20-year mortality data in 12 cohorts of six countries.  Ann Med . 1989;  21 175-179
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Menotti A, Keys A, Kromhout D. Inter-cohort differences in coronary heart disease mortality in the 25-year follow-up of the Seven Countries Study.  Eur J Epidemiol . 1993;  9 527-536
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Keys A, Menotti A, Aravanis C. The Seven Countries Study: 2289 deaths in 15 years.  Prev Med . 1984;  13 141-154
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Nedeljkovic S, Ostojic M C, Grujic M Z. Coronary heart disease deaths in 25 years. The experience in the three Serbian cohorts of the Seven Countries Study.  Acta Cardiol . 1993;  18 11-24
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Menotti A, Seccareccia F, Blackburn H. Coronary mortality and its prediction in samples of US and Italian railroad employees in 25 years within the Seven Countries Study of Cardiovascular Diseases.  Int J Epidemiol . 1995;  24 515-521
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Manson J E, Stampfer M J, Hennekens C H. Body weight and longevity: a reassessment.  JAMA . 1987;  257 353-358
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Hammond E C, Garfinkel L. Coronary heart disease, stroke, and aortic aneurysm: factors in the etiology.  Arch Environ Health . 1969;  19 167-182
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Lew E A, Garfinkel L. Variations in mortality by weight among 750,000 men and women.  J Chron Dis . 1979;  32 563-576
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Rexrode K M, Carey V J, Hennekens C H. Abdominal adiposity and coronary heart disease in women.  JAMA . 1998;  280 1843-1848
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Lapidus L, Bengtsson C. Regional obesity as a health hazard in women-a prospective study.  Act Med Scand . 1988;  723(Suppl) 53-59
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Hubert H B, Feinleib M, McNamara P M. Obesity as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease: a 26-year follow-up of participants in the Framingham Heart Study.  Circulation . 1983;  67 968-977
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Phillips A N, Pocock S J. Sample size requirements for prospective studies, with examples for coronary heart disease.  J Clin Epidemiol . 1989;  42 639-648
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Kuskowska-Wolk A, Karlsson P, Stolt M. The predictive validity of body mass index based on self-reported weight and height.  Int J Obes . 1989;  13 441-453
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Williamson D F. Descriptive epidemiology of body weight and weight change in US adults.  Ann Intern Med . 1993;  119 646-649
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Kassirer J, Angell M. Losing weight-an ill-fated New Year's resolution.  N Engl J Med . 1998;  338 52-54
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Beasley J W. Body weight and longevity [letter].  JAMA . 1987;  257 1895
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Rissanen A, Heliövaara M, Aromaa A. Weight and mortality in Finnish men.  J Clin Epidemiol . 1989;  42 781-789
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Willett W C, Dietz W H, Colditz G A. Guidelines for healthy weight.  N Engl J Med . 1999;  341 427-434
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Manson J E, Willett W C, Stampfer M J. Body weight and longevity [letter].  JAMA . 1987;  257 1896
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Liu S, Serdula M K, Williamson D F. A prospective study of alcohol intake and change in body weight among US adults.  Am J Epidemiol . 1994;  140 912-920
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Egger M, Zellweger-Zahner T, Schneider M. Language bias in randomised controlled trials published in English and German.  Lancet . 1997;  350 326-329
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Hardman A E. Physical activity, obesity and blood lipids.  Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord . 1999;  23 S64-S71
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Ashley F, Kannel W B. Relation of weight change to changes in atherogenic traits: the Framingham Study.  J Chron Dis . 1974;  27 103-114
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Higgins M, D'Agostino R, Kannel W. Benefits and adverse effects of weight loss: observations from the Framingham Study.  Ann Intern Med . 1993;  119 758-763
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Dattilo A M, Kris-Eherton P M. Effects of weight reduction on blood lipids and lipoproteins: a meta-analysis.  Am J Clin Nutr . 1992;  56 320-328
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 National Institutes of Health. Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults-the evidence report.  Obes Res . 1998;  6(Suppl 2) 51S-209S
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Sjöström C D, Lissner L, Wedel H. Reduction in incidence of diabetes, hypertension and lipid disturbances after intentional weight loss induced by bariatric surgery: the SOS Intervention Study.  Obes Res . 1999;  7 477-484
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Rocchini A P. Obesity and blood pressure regulation. In: Bray GA, Bouchard C, James WPT, eds. Handbook of Obesity New York: Marcel Dekker 1998: 677-695
    Google Scholar
  • 119 Albu J, Pi-Sunyer F X. Obesity and diabetes. In: Bray GA, Bouchard C, James WPT, eds. Handbook of Obesity New York: Marcel Dekker 1998: 697-707
    Google Scholar
  • 120 Kahn B B, Flier J S. Obesity and insulin resistance.  J Clin Invest . 2000;  106 473-481
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 121 Abernathy R P, Black D R. Healthy body weights: an alternative perspective.  Am J Clin Nutr . 1996;  63(Suppl) 448S-451S
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 122 Blair S N. Weight loss and risk of mortality. In: Bray GA, Bouchard C, James WPT, eds. Handbook of Obesity New York: Marcel Dekker 1998: 805-819
    Google Scholar
  • 123 National Task Force on the Prevention and Treatment of Obesity. Weight cycling.  JAMA . 1994;  272 1196-1202
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 124 World Health Organization. Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic: Report of a WHO Consultation Geneva: WHO Technical Report Series; no. 894 2000
  • 125 Jeffrey R W. Prevention of obesity. In: Bray GA, Bouchard C, James WPT, eds. Handbook of Obesity New York: Marcel Dekker 1998: 819-829
    Google Scholar
  • 126 Rose G. Population distributions of risk and disease.  Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis . 1991;  1 37-40
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 127 World Health Organization. Physical Status: The Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry Geneva: World Health Organization 1995: 329
  • 128 Walker M, Shaper A G. Follow-up of subjects in prospective studies based in general practice.  J R Coll Gen Pract . 1984;  34 365-370
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 129 Tate R B, Manfread J, Krahn A D. Tracking of blood pressure over a 40-year period in the University of Manitoba Follow-up Study, 1948-1988.  Am J Epidemiol . 1995;  142 946-954
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 130 Cornoni-Huntley J, Barbano H E, Brody J A. National Health and Nutrition Examination I-epidemiologic follow-up survey.  Public Health Rep . 1983;  98 245-510
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 131 Sorlie P, Gordon T, Kannel W B. Body build and mortality: the Framingham Study.  JAMA . 1980;  243 1828-1831
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 132 Reunanen A, Aromaa A, Pyörälä K. The Social Insurance Institution's Coronary Heart Disease Study.  Acta Med Scand . 1983;  673(Suppl) 1-120
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 133 Keys A. Seven Countries: A Multivariate Analysis of Death and Coronary Heart Disease.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ Pr 1980
    Google Scholar
  • 134 Bloom E, Reed D, Yano K. Does obesity protect hypertensives against cardiovascular disease?.  JAMA . 1986;  256 2972-2975
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
      >